又綺專討,論文,ISSRM第一章

第一節 研究緣起

現今普遍的都市化現象，使得人們對於環境、生態和身心健康都有重大的疑慮，並開始著重於綠化的相關研究及設計規劃。在生態的議題上，生物多樣性(biodiversity)一直以來都是環境工作者努力的目標。為了增加都市內的生物多樣性，相關研究探討在都市中景觀結構與物種多樣性指標之間的相關性，且多以鳥類作為指標物種(Blake, 1987; Hostetler & Holling, 2000; Hostetler & Knowles-Yanez, 2003; Clergeau et al., 2001)。研究結果則供作都市綠化方向的選擇。
此類研究通常利用土地使用分區(land-use)、綠地面積(green area)、植物型態(plant types)及植物種類(plant species)等變項與物種多樣性指標做相關性分析，或以土地利用型態(LCTs)將景觀結構加以分類，計算景觀結構指數(landscape structure metrics)後與物種多樣性指標進行分析。但鮮少以植物生理週期，討論植物四季的花期(flowering)、著果期(fruiting)、休眠(dormancy)及抽梢(shooting)…等型態對於鳥類分布的影響。
在景觀設計規劃的實作上，除了增加綠地面積、連接度外，設計者常會於公園內種植大量的誘鳥植物(bird-attracting plants)，希望藉由食物吸引鳥類前來，提供民眾與自然生物接觸的機會並也希望提高物種的多樣性。鳥類使用植栽的理由不僅僅只有食物來源，尚有躲避處所-密度高的灌叢，及築巢原料和環境-草桿、枯枝。因此，本研究希望可以以兩種不同的景觀結構分類，分析出誘鳥植物對於鳥類的影響，並以四季的景觀結構討論鳥類的分布情形。
另外，研究發現在一般的景觀生態研究中缺乏適當尺度的考量，尤其眾多研究者著重於粒度與幅度等空間尺度的選擇，而忽略了其它非空間尺度(McGarigal & Cushman, 2005)，遂時間尺度(temporal scale)也是本研究的尺度考量因子之一。(←這邊寫出來了，卻不曉得要考量甚麼...)



第二節 研究問題及目的

本研究之研究問題為誘鳥植物是否會對鳥類族群分布有影響，而四季的景觀結構和鳥類的族群分布之間的關係為何。在資料的成本及收集時效性、便利性的考量下，本研究以氣球空拍作為取得景觀結構資料的工具，並在2009年當中以中國農曆24節氣(chinese solar term)進行拍攝。(←已經錯過"立春"了....)
以土地使用型態(包括喬木、灌木、草地、水體及建物等等)和植物生理週期兩種景觀結構分類作為自變項，鳥類多樣性指標作為應變項，排除其他可能影響應變項之因子，探討都市景觀結構與鳥類族群分布之關係。基於以上，本研究依序歸納研究目的如下：

一、 以土地使用型態和植物生理週期兩種景觀結構分類，探討誘鳥植物對鳥類族群分布之影響。

二、 探討都市綠地四季的景觀結構與鳥類族群分布的關係。



以下是第三章的部分：

本研究觀察台北都市綠地一年四季中之景觀結構變化，依照中國24節氣以一個月兩次的頻率，選擇良好天氣狀況於各樣區上空拍攝，並利用電腦軟體進行影像之校正(ArcGIS or ERDAS or PCI...還在了解軟體當中)、數化(eCognition)及景觀結構指數計算(FRAGSTATE)。鳥類調查依造拍攝的時間做記錄，調查人員固定以減少人為誤差。以統計軟體統計鳥類的隻數種數並計算鳥類多樣性指標。兩者進行皮爾森相關性分析，求得自變項與應變項之關係。

基地：
目前暫訂台大30個點，大安森林公園20個點。但是這樣各樣點會句離很近，不曉得會不會有影響。(或是台北市公園綠地中，以自然、綠蔭為主題之公園，避開河濱公園、運動公園之類的公園，並因鳥類需求最小之綠地面積，選擇1.56公頃以上之公園綠地。結果共選出8處綠地，包括7個公園以及台灣大學校本部。)

extent：
半徑100公尺。(想減少空拍接圖的誤差，盡量想把氣球放很高，每個樣區照1~4張接起來。)

grain：
上一次專討做出來，解析度是在0.7公尺有顯著，但是我覺得grain的重要性在這個研究裡不大，所以可能還是用空拍的解析度去做。

LCTs：
A(落葉喬木、常綠喬木、枝葉密度高灌木、枝葉密度低灌木、草地、農地、)+水體、人工地盤、建物
B(花期、著果期、休眠期(枯木)、抽梢期、綠意盎然期...)+水體、人工地盤、建物

鳥調：
台大保育社，定點計數法

八塊--[Oral]Restorative Benefits of Natural Greenness: A Meta-Analysis on Attention Restorative Theory

Using a meta-analysis, existing research comparing the effects of different environmental settings on perceived restorativeness was synthesized. Focusing on the general framework of restorative environments, this study quantitatively reviewed the correlation between 4 factors—being away, fascination, extent, and compatibility—of attention restoration theory. The ongoing literature search located 10 articles covering 2,070 participants and 118 scenes. Data suitable for a qualitative review were found in 6 of the articles, covering a total of 1,409 participants and 83 scenes. A considerable degree of heterogenecity existed in the data for all environments, indicating that results have not been reproducible. The quantitative data from the collected studies were also transformed into effect size (ES). In addition, 15 studied variables (e.g., researchers’ backgrounds, participants’ backgrounds, research design details, measuring tools, titles of published journal) were selected and analyzed using one-way ANOVA to relate ESs. The primary findings of this study suggested that different measuring scales produced different sizes of results; moreover, natural-based landscape was more effective than built landscape in regards to restorative benefits (mean ES of 1.84). As this study remains unfinished and article collection is an ongoing process, more implications for efficiently planning future work will also be discussed.

瑋佳-[Oral]The effect of land use regulations on ecological habitat

Although there are a lot of guidelines for sustainable land use, the key factor determining the land use is the legal regulations. Furthermore, people always want to ensure the ecological quality and the sustainability through legal regulations. Therefore, it is necessary to explore how legal regulations influence the ecological habitats through controlling land use.

In Taiwan, there are three land use systems: urban (which is in the scope of the urban plan), non-urban, and national park (which is in the scope of the national park plan). This study carries out a series of gradient analysis in several regions to examine the difference between land use systems. In order to measure the urbanization gradient of land cover types, we conduct the analysis along a wild-urban transect cutting across the regions we select. The areas of artificial pavement and buildings are computed using an overlapping moving window across the transect with FRAGSTATS.

The main findings of the analysis include two dimensions of legal regulations: the legal system and the degree of wild conservation. First, the buffer zone does not exist, unless there are non-urban lands between the urban and the wild. Second, the national park provides the best protection for the wild. There is a protected zone in urban plan, but it does not maintain a good quality as other legal systems. The results could be applied to suggest the principles of land use legislation.

　　

瑋佳-[Poster]Public and professional perspectives on national parks

In recent years, the research related to protected areas has focused on the interaction between people and the environment. Ecologists and natural resource managers in public and private sectors want to generate people’s interest in the natural environment and environmental problems. However, scant literature mentions the gaps between ideal and practical conditions. Considering public involvement, this study examined issues facing national parks, carrying out a quantitative analysis to discuss the differences between public and professional perspectives for national parks, including their understanding, judgment, and expectations.

As environmental ethics and standards have shaped common sense, interviews might lead to some standard answers. In order to prevent interview bias, this study collected blog articles and online news items to represent public viewpoints. Furthermore, experts’ and scholars’ comments in official judgments and discussion meetings were recorded to represent professional viewpoints.

The analysis of public viewpoints determined that primary attitudes toward national parks included four paradigms: environmental ethics, environmental challenges, environmental education, and environmental experience. People connect with environmental education through on-site visits, making it closely relative to environmental experience. The context suggests that national parks currently provide unsatisfying experiences for people except those concerned with environmental challenges. For people concerned with environmental ethics, the conservation of natural and cultural resources is not sufficient as people concerned with environmental experiences hope to gain more comfort and convenience, which significantly counters professional viewpoints. The comprehensive analysis not only defined the functions of national parks, but also suggested a development policy.

　　

[討論]維基百科是否可用於研究的參考文獻

前年婉甄學姐口試預講時我曾提出「維基百科」(wiki)不適合用於研究論文的參考文獻中，所持的理由是「它是一個每個人都可以上去進行編輯的網路圖文資料庫，可靠性與嚴謹度令人存疑」。然而當自己寫論文時才發現，有些資料實在查找不易，但是這個利用網路社群力量建構的資料庫卻常常意外地提供了我們所需要的資料，而且他的成立宗旨與運作介紹中也說到，他們有專人審查所有被上傳的條目，務必使資料正確、可靠而且客觀，並且藉由龐大的網路使用者來監督每一筆資料的正確性，因此我就想到，那這樣的一個資料庫是否可以合理的當作研究的參考文獻（網路資源）來使用。
我們知道研究文章引用參考文獻必須具有說服力，而這個說服力建立在被檢驗的基礎上。一個名滿天下的學者大師學有專精，所寫的文章或專書經得起世人的檢驗，所以可以參考引用；一篇被刊載於SCI、SSCI或TSSCI期刊的研究文章因為經得起多位審查委員的監督與檢驗，所以可以參考引用；一篇台灣的碩士論文，因為審查機制不良、受審程度不深，也許也是制度苟合的結果，所以經不起有心人士的檢驗，所以最好不要參考。
因此，如果參考文獻的說服力是建立在受檢程度的基礎邏輯上，維基百科是否具有被使用的合理性？而事實上，維基百科的內容大多是專有名詞解釋以及相關資料的介紹，這類型的資料相對於研究期刊中研究方法、研究結果等資料的引用，也比較不會有解讀得困難。
所以，維基百科這樣的網路資源，是否具有被引用的合理性？又或者將來有一個研究社群的網路系統如同維基百科的精神，建立一個資料庫，每個人都可以把自己的研究內容與結果上傳，也可以被人審查、質疑、修改，這樣的一個資料庫上的研究結果是否也可以引用？

瑋佳-好入門英文聽力

大推美國之音http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/index.cfm

雖然很多英美廣播公司都推出外國學生學英文專欄, 但我覺得美國之音是最有誠意的, 原因有3:

1. 在LEARNING ENGLISH這個連結裡(會連到SPECIAL ENGLISH去), 播放的英文都講得特慢, 從建立自信心開始! 全是MP3格式的檔案, 可線上聽也可以下載!
2. 備有 Agriculture Report(園藝系學生必聽), American Stories, Development Report, Economics Report, Education Report, Explorations(造園組學生必聽)及Health Report等多個主題, 極適合用來準備托福等考試
3. 更有Foreign Student Series, 就算不打算出國念書也可以瞭解一下這個世界上其他競爭者在做什麼^^

　

瑋佳-Schadule of research plans

Last month (last year?), CYC told me to make a schadule. It's not easy to post a table here. I've tried my best....
It's from Jan. to Jul.

2009 Schadule of research plans

Research　　　　　　　　　　　　Target　　　　　　　　　　Month

The benefit and application of　　　　J. Therapeutic Horticulture　　　1　2
the natural views to students’ 　　　　(AHTA)
attention in classroom

Land use and fragmentation: 　　　　(1)IALE_EU 2009　　　　　　　　　　　　　　6　7　8　9　10 　
based on legal mechanism　　　　　(2)LUP

Gaps and bridges: The public　　　　ISSRM 2009　　　　　　　　　　2　3　4　5　　7
and professional perspectives
on Taiwan's national parks

Dissertation proposal: 　　　　　　　(1) Seminar　　　　　　　　 　 　　3　4　5　6　
The effect of land use　　　　　　　 (2) Proposal defense
regulations on landscape
structure and ecological quality

1: Keep working
2: Present or submit

　　

Purpose of the Study 2/12

Overall Principles:
Describe in brief sentances, connecting your research problem, based on your literature review, following with research methods.

Purpose of the Study
1. Use a word such as purpose, intent, or objective to begin the passage
2. identify the theory, model, or conceptual framework to be tested in the study (do not need to describe it in detail)
3. mention the specific type of method of inquiry being used in the study (survey, experiment)
4. state whether the independent and dependent variables will be related or whether two or more groups(as an independent variable) will be compared in terms of the dependent variable(s)
5. as a general principle, order the variables in the relationship or comparison sentence from independent to dependent
6. refer to the unit of analysis in the study (mention the subjects, population, or sample being studied, as well as the number of the individuals studied
7. provide a general definition for each key variable in the study and use established definition

Examples:

The purpose of this____(experimental? Survey?) study is (was? Will be?) to test the theory of ____that____(compares? Relates?) the____(independent variable) to____(dependent variable) for____(subjects? Sample?) at____(the research site). The independent variable(s) ____will be defined generally as____(provide a general definition). The dependent variable(s) will be defined generally as____(provide a general definition), and the intervening variable(s), ____(identify the intervening variables) will be statistically controlled in the study.
(Research Design, Creswell, 2006?)

The purpose of the present research was to develop rating scale measures of the four components postulated by Kaplan and Kaplan (1989). To develop such measures has at least two important motivations. First, by empirically showing that the hypothesized restorative components are separate constructs, an evaluation of Kaplan and Kaplan's (1989) theory is achieved. Second, it is necessary to be able to measure the restorative components to find out how they are related to different outcome measures. There is hardly any other way of doing this than requesting human observers to report how they experience different environments in these respects (Craik & Feimer, 1987).
......
The objective of the present research is to develop another set of rating scale measures of the four components of restorative environments, being away, extent, fascination, and compatibility. In doing this, an attempt is made to remedy some of the noted shortcomings of the PRS.
(Journal of Environmental Pshcyology (2001) 21, 31-44)

This article focuses on exploring the affective components of the wilderness place setting as they relate to spiritually beneficial outdoor recreation experiences; more specifically, what types of setting characteristics or attributes (i.e. biophysical and social) give rise to outdoor experiences that are considered spiritually inspirational. Historically, most research on recreation has focused primarily on specific activities rather than the recreational setting in and of itself. However, over the past two decades researchers have begun to recognize that the setting itself is largely influential in determining how satisfied the recreationist is with the activity. In effect, the parameters of recreation research have now broadened to include the environment as a primary point of inquiry. The thrust of this article is to more fully investigate a number of setting attributes that were ‘key’ in determining the spiritually inspirational qualities of two different outdoor recreation experiences for two separate groups of women.
(Journal of Environmental Psychology(1999)19, 21-39 )

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there was a relationship between the degree of naturalness in the view from university dormitory residents’ windows and their capacity to direct attention.
......
The specific objective of this study was to determine whether the degree of naturalness in the view from college dormitory windows was associated with residents’ levels of capacity to direct attention. It was hypothesized that students who had more natural views from their dormitory windows would show higher levels of performance on measures of directed attention than those who had less natural window views.
(Journal ofEnvimnmento1 Psychology (1995) 15,77-85 )

The aim of this study was to search for a link between the map-based land cover data typical for monitoring programs, and perceived aesthetic quality as quantified through a photography-based preference study. To achieve this we used the results from a landscape preference study for Norwegian agricultural landscapes (Tveit, 2000), linked to a number of 1 km2 squares included in the 3Q-monitoring programme. Based on the land­scape represented in the images, we calculated a number of map-based landscape indicators, aiming to see whether any of these indicators were correlated to preference rankings.
(Landscape and Urban Planning 78 (2006) 465-474 )

The central aim of the present research was to gain more insight into people’s visual preferences for nature development landscapes. In the following paragraphs, we first discuss differ­ent strategies for nature development and their relation to the concept of wilderness. We then review prior research on indi­vidual differences in visual preferences for wild versus managed natural landscapes along with the potential relevance of place of residence, socio-economic variables, and recreational motives to explain these differences. Finally, we present the results of a survey among 500 residents from six nature development areas in The Netherlands.
(Landscape and Urban Planning 78 (2006) 362-372)

The emphasis of prior research on restoration has been on experiences in outdoor natural settings that range considerably in duration but are distinctly longer than the very brief interludes that characterize looking out the window (e.g., Hartig, Böök, Garvill, Olsson, & Gärling, 1996; Hartig, Mang, & Evans, 1991). The emphasis of the present article, by contrast, is on people’s window views from home. More specifically, the focus is on the content of these views, the degree to which residents’ views are of preferred settings, and the association of view contents with well-being and residential satisfaction. Examination of the role of the view from home is hardly a trivial issue. For many individuals, extended restorative experiences may be few and far between. Micro-restorative experiences afforded by the view from home, however, may be far more attainable.
(Environmant and behavior, Vol. 33 No.4, July 2001 507-542)

Research Problem 1/12

Overall Principle:
0-1. Provide a narrative hook
0-2. lower the barrel

1. Describe a problem
1-1. write an opening sentence that stimulates interests as well as conveys an issue to which a broad readership can relate
1-2 specify the problem (dilemma, issue) leading to the study
1-3 indicate why the problem is important
1-4 focus the problem statement on the key concept being tested (the dependent variable)
1-5 as a general rule, refrain from using quotes in the leading sentence
1-6 stay away from idiomatic expressions or trite phrase
1-7 consider numeric information for impact
1-8 consider short sentence for impact

2. Describe the literature about the problem
2-1 discuss the literature that addresses the problem and set the problem within the ongoing dialogue in the literature
2-2 refer to the literature by summarizing groups of studies, not individual studies
Mention deficiencies in the literature
2-3 write about areas overlooked by past studies, including topics, special statistical treatments, and significant implications
2-4 discuss how the present study addresses these deficiencies and provides a unique contribution to the literature (what remains to be explored) (little empirical research) (very few studies)

3. Target an audience
3-1end the introduction by discussing the significance of the problem for a specific audience
3-2 to phrase a question that the audience likely would want to answer

Examples:

Will people drive less or recycle more only when they feel that they must do so to ward off the threat of ecological collapse? We see in environment-behavior research an emphasis on risks, damages, and moral obligations as the driving forces of ecological behavior (i.e., behaviors that contribute to environmental preservation and conservation) (Axelrod & Lehman, 1993). Although research on negative determinants such as personal threat (e.g., Baldassare & Katz, 1992), harm (e.g., Manzo &Weinstein, 1987), and guilt feelings (e.g., Kaiser & Shimoda, 1999) may help to ameliorate environmental problems, it represents a limited perspective on the motivational basis of ecological behavior. In this article, we apply a complementary perspective that encompasses positive motivations for ecological behavior.
(ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR, Vol. 33 No. 4, July 2001 590-607)

In 1996, more than 13 million children in the United States were living below the poverty line. Among White children, 16% live in poverty, where­as nearly 40% of African American children live in poverty (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998). Along with poverty often come substandard housing conditions-commonly characterized by overcrowding, infestation by rodents or insects, and lack of adequate heat or plumbing. According to a recent study by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, a record 5.3 million low-income households are paying more than 50% of their income for rent or are living in severely substandard housing (“In Our Opin­ion,” 1998). Children living in poverty commonly face a host of environmental chal­lenges such as poor housing, deteriorated neighborhoods, and overcrowded schools, not to mention the prevalence of social ills such as crime, violence, and racism. Within this context, it is likely that housing conditions can have a strong effect on young occupants. Yet the nature of this effect is unclear. The extant empirical literature provides little evidence regarding the housing characteristics that matter. Of particular interest in this article, the extent of the naturalness of children’s home environment has received virtually no research attention. Does the view from a child’s home affect his or her well-being? Do nearby trees make a difference in cognitive functioning? There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that these factors are gener­ally important to human well-being, but there is little clarity regarding their significance to children within the home environment. Before considering the question of nature in the home, I will first review the literature regarding the effects of housing on children.
(ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR, Vol. 32 No. 6, November 2000 775-795)

People tend to prefer natural over built environments ability to provide restoration from stress or attentional (see reviews by Ulrich, 1983; Knopf, 1987; Kaplan & fatigue (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Hartig & Evans, 1993; Kaplan, 1989; Hartig, 1993). For example, in samples of Staats, Kieviet, & Hartig, 2003). In particular, pre-European and North American adults, photographs of natural scenes consistently receive higher ratings of liking, scenic beauty, or pleasantness than photographs of urban scenes (e.g. Purcell, Lamb, Mainardi Peron, & Falchero, 1994; Stamps, 1996). Typically, levels of self-reported preference for natural scenes are so much higher than preference levels for urban scenes that the distributions of ratings for the two domains hardly overlap (e.g. Kaplan, Kaplan, & Wendt, 1972; see also Ulrich, 1983). People’s preference for natural over built environments can also be inferred from behavioral indicators, such as the higher prices paid for real estate in natural surroundings (e.g. Anderson & Cordell, 1988; Luttik, 2000).
Given that the empirical evidence for the preference for natural over built environments is strong and robust, it becomes important to ask why people have such a ubiquitous fondness for nature. According to several authors, at least part of the answer relates to nature’s ability to provide restoration from stress or attentional fatique (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Hartig & Evans, 1993; Staats, Kieviet, & Hartig, 2003). In particular, preference for natural over built environments may be mediated by an implicit assessment of these environments’ potential for restoring or improving wellbeing (Appleton, 1975; Ulrich, 1983; Kaplan, 1987). Although this explanation is theoretically plausible, relatively little evidence has directly supported the mediating role of restoration in environmental preferences. The present research was designed to fill this void.
(Journal of Environmental Psychology 23 (2003) 135-146)

Where rural arterial roads approach cities, they become magnets for urban commercial expansion. When approaching a city from the countryside, these roads too often present visually chaotic settings consisting of commercial development that represents the worst of urban sprawl-settings that are open, barren, monotonous, and overwhelmingly ugly. Designed for maximum visibility and convenience, commercial strips along the roads of the rural-urban fringe include enormous parking lots in front of superstores that are set a great distance from the road, with a striking openness and lack of spatial definition or trees that might block views to a store, its merchandise, or its advertisements. The result is a landscape that people dislike, but somehow tolerate. Should we relegate commercial strip development at the rural-urban fringe to the visual category of landscape that includes industrial sites and junkyards? Or are there inexpensive ways to improve the visual quality, and ultimately, the experience of the users of such settings? In this paper, we explore the extent to which typical commercial development in a Midwestern US agricultural landscape impacts the visual quality of the countryside. We also explore the reactions of nearby residents to alternative patterns of commercial development at the rural-urban fringe.We begin by examining commercial development at the rural-urban fringe and the resulting landscape that it too often creates. Next, we review recent research regarding preferences for various landscape settings, focusing on roadsides, scenic corridors, and central business districts. Finally, reporting the results of a new study, we examine the extent to which local citizens prefer various development patterns for a roadway corridor at the fringe of a medium-sized community and discuss the implications of the findings for planning commissions, designers, and businesses.
(Landscape and Urban Planning 77 (2006) 152-166)